1 The Crown
The line of monarchs traces back to jostling Saxon kingdoms, before England was a thing, and a crowned head has sat at the constitution’s apex since, except when it was briefly knocked off its perch in the 17th century.
Royal Assent for new laws has not been refused since 1708. By contrast, royal prerogatives to, for example, prorogue parliament and declare war retain bite. Though mostly discharged by ministers in the crown’s name, the ancient source of the power can have odd consequences. Repealing the Fixed-term Parliaments Act, for example, may not neatly restore the monarch’s traditional prerogative to call an election.