For a century, foreign powers have been involved in air wars over Afghanistan. After the First World War, the Royal Air Force joined the ‘Great Game’ on the North West Frontier, engaging in the Third Afghan War and then launching the world’s first aerial evacuation, from Kabul in 1928-29. The Soviets invaded in 1979 and spent ten fruitless years attempting to stamp their authority on this desolate country. After the terrorist attacks of September 2001, the United States, supported by a broad coalition, entered the country to eliminate Al Qaeda and the Taliban who harboured them. In each case, they brought the most modern of weaponry and technology to this challenging and hostile environment, and in each case they still struggled to gain the initiative, let alone obtain victory.